APUSH Unit 6 Study Guide: Overview (1865-1898)
Period 6 (1865-1898) focuses on the transformative era of westward expansion‚ industrialization‚ and increasing immigration‚ reshaping the American economy and society․
Period 6 in APUSH‚ spanning 1865-1898‚ marks a pivotal shift following the Civil War․ This era witnessed dramatic economic growth fueled by industrial capitalism and technological innovation․ Westward expansion accelerated‚ driven by railroads and resource discovery‚ profoundly impacting Native American populations․
Simultaneously‚ the “New South” attempted reconstruction amidst sharecropping and Jim Crow laws․ The Gilded Age emerged‚ characterized by political corruption and the rise of big business․ Increased immigration and urbanization created new social challenges‚ sparking reform movements and the burgeoning labor movement‚ all setting the stage for the 20th century․
Key Concept 6․1: Technological Innovation & Industrial Capitalism
Key Concept 6․1 centers on how technological advancements and large-scale production methods spurred the rise of industrial capitalism․ Innovations like the Bessemer process and electricity fueled massive industrial growth‚ opening new markets and transforming American life․ This period saw a shift from agrarian society to one dominated by factories and corporations․
The expansion of railroads facilitated the transportation of goods and people‚ while new communication technologies connected the nation․ These changes dramatically altered labor systems and created both immense wealth and significant social inequalities‚ prompting debates about economic regulation․
The Second Industrial Revolution
The Second Industrial Revolution‚ occurring roughly from 1870 to 1914‚ witnessed unprecedented technological advancements․ Steel production soared with the Bessemer process‚ enabling railroad expansion and skyscraper construction․ Electricity‚ pioneered by Edison and Tesla‚ revolutionized industries and daily life‚ powering factories and homes;
New innovations in communication‚ like the telephone and telegraph‚ connected the nation․ This era fostered mass production‚ leading to lower costs and increased consumerism․ These developments fundamentally reshaped the American economy‚ creating new opportunities and challenges for workers and businesses alike․
Westward Expansion & Its Impact
Post-Civil War‚ westward expansion boomed due to railroads‚ resources‚ and government policies‚ fostering economic growth but dramatically impacting Native American populations․
Transcontinental Railroads
The completion of the first transcontinental railroad in 1869‚ connecting the East and West‚ revolutionized American transportation and commerce․ This monumental feat‚ achieved through the labor of immigrant workers – particularly Chinese laborers – dramatically reduced travel times and shipping costs‚ facilitating trade and settlement․
Government land grants to railroad companies incentivized rapid construction‚ but also led to issues of corruption and monopolistic practices․ The railroads spurred economic growth in various sectors‚ including agriculture‚ mining‚ and manufacturing‚ while simultaneously contributing to the displacement and marginalization of Native American tribes whose lands were traversed and disrupted by the expanding rail network․ They truly reshaped the American landscape and economy․
Government Policies & Westward Movement
Several key government policies actively encouraged and facilitated westward expansion during this period․ The Homestead Act of 1862 offered 160 acres of public land to settlers who agreed to live on and cultivate it for five years‚ attracting many farmers․ Simultaneously‚ the Pacific Railway Acts provided federal support for building transcontinental railroads‚ opening up new territories for settlement․
However‚ these policies often came at the expense of Native Americans‚ as the government pursued a policy of forced removal and assimilation․ Treaties were frequently broken‚ and conflicts arose as settlers encroached upon Indigenous lands․ These actions dramatically altered the demographics and landscape of the American West‚ driven by both opportunity and injustice․
Impact on Native Americans
Westward expansion had a devastating impact on Native American populations․ The relentless encroachment of settlers‚ coupled with broken treaties and military conflicts‚ led to significant loss of life‚ land‚ and cultural traditions․ The buffalo‚ a vital resource for Plains tribes‚ was systematically hunted to near extinction‚ disrupting their way of life․
Government policies like the Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing tribal lands into individual allotments‚ further eroding their collective identity and self-governance․ Resistance movements‚ such as the Ghost Dance‚ were brutally suppressed‚ culminating in events like the Wounded Knee Massacre‚ symbolizing the tragic consequences of westward expansion․
The Mining Frontier
The discovery of gold and silver in the West spurred a massive influx of miners and settlers‚ creating boomtowns and transforming the economic landscape․ The Comstock Lode in Nevada and the gold rushes in California and Colorado attracted diverse populations seeking fortune‚ fostering a rugged and often lawless environment․
Mining communities were characterized by rapid growth‚ speculation‚ and social tensions․ While few struck it rich‚ mining stimulated economic development‚ attracting businesses and contributing to the growth of transportation networks․ However‚ it also led to environmental degradation and conflicts with Native Americans over land and resources‚ leaving a lasting impact on the region․
The New South
Following Reconstruction‚ the “New South” aimed for industrialization‚ but remained largely agricultural‚ burdened by sharecropping‚ Jim Crow laws‚ and persistent economic inequalities․
Sharecropping & Tenant Farming
After the Civil War‚ sharecropping and tenant farming became dominant agricultural systems in the South‚ particularly for formerly enslaved people and poor whites․ Sharecroppers typically received a share of the crop in return for labor‚ while tenant farmers rented land․ Both systems often trapped individuals in cycles of debt due to high interest rates and unfair contracts with landowners․
These arrangements perpetuated economic dependence and limited opportunities for advancement‚ effectively replacing slavery with a new form of economic coercion․ The lack of land ownership and access to capital hindered the economic progress of many Southerners‚ contributing to the region’s continued struggles and inequalities during the late 19th century․
Jim Crow Laws & Segregation
Following Reconstruction‚ Southern states enacted Jim Crow laws‚ establishing a system of legal segregation․ These laws mandated separate facilities for Black and white Americans in areas like schools‚ transportation‚ restaurants‚ and hospitals․ Segregation was justified by the “separate but equal” doctrine established in Plessy v․ Ferguson (1896)‚ though facilities for Black Americans were consistently inferior․
Jim Crow laws aimed to disenfranchise African Americans through poll taxes‚ literacy tests‚ and grandfather clauses‚ effectively denying them political rights․ This systematic discrimination created a deeply unequal society‚ limiting opportunities and reinforcing racial prejudice throughout the South and beyond․
Industrialization in the South
Despite remaining largely agrarian‚ the South experienced limited industrialization during the late 19th century‚ primarily focused on textile production․ Northern investment and the availability of cheap labor fueled the growth of mills in areas like the Piedmont region of North Carolina and South Carolina․ However‚ this industrialization often replicated exploitative labor practices․
The “New South” proponents advocated for diversification beyond cotton‚ but industrial development remained uneven and heavily reliant on resource extraction․ While offering some employment opportunities‚ industrialization didn’t fundamentally alter the South’s economic dependence or racial hierarchy․
The Gilded Age: Politics & Corruption
This era saw widespread political machines‚ like Tammany Hall‚ and rampant government corruption‚ demanding reforms like the Pendleton Civil Service Act․
Political Machines & Boss Tweed
Political machines‚ prevalent in Gilded Age cities‚ were organizations offering services – jobs‚ housing – in exchange for votes․ They thrived on patronage and often engaged in corrupt practices․ William “Boss” Tweed‚ head of Tammany Hall in New York City‚ epitomized this corruption․
Tweed and his associates systematically defrauded the city‚ inflating contracts and pocketing the profits‚ amassing fortunes through illegal means․ Thomas Nast‚ a political cartoonist‚ played a crucial role in exposing Tweed’s schemes through scathing illustrations‚ ultimately leading to his downfall and conviction‚ though he later escaped from prison․
Corruption in Government
The Gilded Age witnessed widespread corruption at all levels of government‚ fueled by rapid industrialization and the immense wealth it generated․ Bribery‚ graft‚ and political machines flourished‚ undermining public trust․ Lax regulations and a “laissez-faire” approach allowed businesses to exert undue influence over politicians‚ securing favorable legislation and avoiding accountability․
Scandals like the Credit Mobilizer affair‚ involving railroad construction fraud‚ and the Whiskey Ring‚ a scheme to defraud the government of tax revenue‚ exposed the depth of the problem․ This systemic corruption prompted calls for reform and ultimately contributed to the passage of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act․
The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act
Responding to widespread corruption and the demand for a more merit-based system‚ the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 marked a significant shift in federal employment practices․ It established a system where government jobs were awarded based on qualifications‚ demonstrated through competitive exams‚ rather than political patronage – the “spoils system․”
This act aimed to reduce corruption‚ improve government efficiency‚ and create a professional civil service․ While not eliminating political influence entirely‚ it represented a crucial step towards a more transparent and accountable government‚ curtailing the power of political machines and fostering a more qualified workforce․
The Labor Movement
Period 6 witnessed the rise of labor organizations like the Knights of Labor and the AFL‚ advocating for workers’ rights amidst industrial challenges and disputes․
The Knights of Labor
The Knights of Labor‚ founded in 1869‚ represented a significant early attempt to organize American workers beyond skilled trades․ Unlike earlier unions‚ the Knights welcomed skilled and unskilled laborers‚ women‚ and African Americans‚ advocating for broad social and economic reforms․ Their platform included demands for an eight-hour workday‚ equal pay for equal work‚ and the abolition of child labor․
However‚ the Knights’ inclusive nature and association with radical ideologies‚ coupled with involvement in several violent labor disputes – most notably the Haymarket Affair – ultimately contributed to their decline by the late 1880s‚ paving the way for more conservative unions․
The American Federation of Labor (AFL)
Founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers‚ the American Federation of Labor (AFL) represented a more pragmatic and conservative approach to labor organization compared to the Knights of Labor․ The AFL focused exclusively on skilled laborers‚ believing they possessed greater bargaining power․ It prioritized “bread and butter” issues – wages‚ working hours‚ and working conditions – rather than broad social reforms․
The AFL utilized collective bargaining‚ strikes‚ and boycotts to achieve its goals‚ becoming a powerful force in advocating for workers’ rights․ Its focus on practical gains and skilled labor contributed to its longevity and success throughout the Gilded Age and beyond․
Haymarket Affair & Labor Disputes
The Haymarket Affair of 1886 significantly damaged the labor movement’s public image․ During a labor demonstration in Chicago’s Haymarket Square‚ a bomb exploded‚ killing police officers and civilians․ Though the bomber’s identity remains unknown‚ eight labor leaders were convicted‚ fueling anti-labor sentiment․
This event‚ coupled with numerous other labor disputes – including the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 – led to increased employer resistance and government intervention on the side of business․ These conflicts highlighted the growing tensions between labor and capital during the era of rapid industrialization․
Immigration & Urbanization
Massive immigration and rapid urbanization dramatically reshaped American cities‚ creating both opportunities and significant social problems during the late 19th century․
New Immigration (1880s-1890s)
The late 19th century witnessed a significant shift in immigration patterns‚ termed “New Immigration․” Unlike earlier waves primarily from Northern and Western Europe‚ this period saw a surge of immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe – Italy‚ Poland‚ Russia‚ and Austria-Hungary․ These newcomers often faced greater prejudice and discrimination due to cultural and religious differences․
They typically lacked financial resources and settled in urban centers‚ contributing to overcrowding and challenging existing social structures․ This influx fueled nativist sentiments and calls for immigration restrictions‚ impacting American society and politics profoundly․
Urban Problems & Reform Movements
Rapid urbanization during the Gilded Age created numerous problems: overcrowding‚ inadequate sanitation‚ pollution‚ and widespread poverty․ Tenements‚ often lacking basic amenities‚ housed large immigrant populations․ These harsh conditions spurred various reform movements aimed at improving city life․
Settlement houses‚ like Hull House founded by Jane Addams‚ offered social services and education to the poor․ Efforts were made to improve sanitation‚ housing codes‚ and public health․ These movements reflected a growing awareness of social inequalities and a desire for progressive change within American cities․
The Rise of Cities
Following the Civil War‚ American cities experienced unprecedented growth‚ fueled by industrialization and massive immigration․ New technologies like electric streetcars and skyscrapers enabled cities to expand both horizontally and vertically․ This urbanization transformed the American landscape‚ concentrating populations and economic activity․
Cities became centers of commerce‚ culture‚ and innovation‚ attracting both domestic migrants and immigrants from Europe and Asia․ However‚ this rapid growth also presented significant challenges‚ including overcrowding‚ sanitation issues‚ and social stratification․ The rise of cities fundamentally altered American life and society․
Populism: The Farmers’ Revolt
Farmers‚ facing economic hardship‚ organized movements like the Grange and Farmers’ Alliances‚ ultimately forming the Populist Party to address their grievances․
Grange Movement
The Grange‚ formally known as the Patrons of Husbandry‚ emerged in the late 1860s as a social and economic alliance for farmers․ Initially‚ it provided a platform for agricultural communities to share ideas and address common challenges․ However‚ the Grange quickly evolved into a powerful advocate for farmers’ rights‚ particularly concerning railroad rates and storage fees․
Farmers felt exploited by these practices‚ and the Grange lobbied state legislatures to enact regulations limiting the railroads’ power․ This activism marked a significant shift in farmers’ willingness to organize and challenge corporate interests․ The Grange’s success in several states laid the groundwork for future agrarian movements and the broader Populist movement‚ demonstrating the potential of collective action․
Farmers’ Alliances
Building upon the foundation laid by the Grange‚ Farmers’ Alliances arose in the 1880s‚ representing a more organized and politically focused agrarian movement․ These alliances‚ primarily concentrated in the South and Plains states‚ aimed to address the economic hardships faced by farmers‚ including falling crop prices‚ high interest rates‚ and discriminatory railroad practices․
Unlike the largely social focus of the Grange‚ the Alliances actively engaged in political advocacy‚ advocating for government regulation of railroads‚ the free coinage of silver‚ and the establishment of cooperative marketing systems․ They also fostered a sense of community and provided educational opportunities for farmers‚ strengthening their collective bargaining power and preparing them for more direct political action․
The Populist Party Platform
Formed in 1892‚ the Populist Party‚ or People’s Party‚ articulated a comprehensive platform addressing the grievances of farmers and laborers․ Key demands included the free and unlimited coinage of silver to inflate the currency and alleviate debt burdens‚ a graduated income tax‚ and government ownership of railroads and telegraph lines to regulate rates․
The platform also advocated for the direct election of senators‚ the initiative and referendum processes to increase citizen participation‚ and an eight-hour workday․ These proposals aimed to dismantle the power of big business and restore economic opportunity for the common person‚ representing a significant challenge to the established political and economic order․
Monetary Policy & Economic Issues
Period 6 witnessed intense debate over monetary policy‚ particularly the gold standard‚ alongside economic crises like the Panic of 1893‚ impacting farmers and laborers․
The Gold Standard Debate
The late 19th century saw a fierce national debate surrounding the gold standard‚ a monetary system where the U․S․ dollar was directly linked to gold․ Farmers and debtors‚ burdened by debt and falling crop prices‚ advocated for “free silver” – the coinage of silver alongside gold – believing it would increase the money supply and inflate prices‚ easing their financial struggles․
Conversely‚ business owners and creditors favored the gold standard‚ fearing that inflating the currency would devalue their assets and create economic instability․ This conflict highlighted the deep divisions within American society regarding economic policy and the role of government in regulating the financial system‚ ultimately shaping the political landscape of the era․
Panic of 1893
The Panic of 1893 was a severe economic depression triggered by railroad overbuilding and shaky financial practices․ The collapse of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad in February 1893 initiated a chain reaction‚ leading to bank failures and business closures across the nation․ Unemployment soared‚ and widespread poverty gripped the country‚ intensifying existing social and economic tensions․
This crisis exposed the vulnerabilities of the American financial system and fueled popular discontent with the existing economic order․ It significantly contributed to the rise of the Populist movement‚ as farmers and laborers sought government intervention to address their economic hardships and prevent future panics․
William Jennings Bryan & “Cross of Gold”
William Jennings Bryan‚ a charismatic Democratic orator‚ emerged as a leading voice for agrarian reform during the 1896 presidential election․ His impassioned “Cross of Gold” speech‚ delivered at the Democratic National Convention‚ vehemently opposed the gold standard and advocated for bimetallism – the free coinage of silver alongside gold․
Bryan’s powerful rhetoric resonated with farmers and laborers struggling under economic hardship‚ positioning him as a champion of the common people․ Though he ultimately lost the election to William McKinley‚ his “Cross of Gold” speech remains a landmark moment in American political history‚ symbolizing the Populist movement’s fight for economic justice․
Key Concept 6․3: Transformation of the American Economy
This key concept explores the dramatic shift towards industrial capitalism‚ marked by the rise of big business‚ monopolies‚ and new economic theories․
Rise of Big Business & Monopolies
The late 19th century witnessed the unprecedented growth of big business‚ fueled by technological innovation and a laissez-faire economic policy․ Entrepreneurs like Carnegie (steel) and Rockefeller (oil) amassed immense fortunes‚ dominating their respective industries․ This led to the formation of monopolies and trusts‚ aiming to control markets and eliminate competition․
These powerful entities often engaged in ruthless business practices‚ exploiting workers and manipulating prices․ While proponents argued that monopolies fostered efficiency and innovation‚ critics decried their negative impact on consumers and small businesses․ The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few became a defining characteristic of the Gilded Age‚ sparking public debate and calls for government regulation․
Vertical & Horizontal Integration
During the Gilded Age‚ industrialists employed strategies like vertical and horizontal integration to consolidate power and dominate markets․ Vertical integration involved controlling all aspects of production‚ from raw materials to distribution – exemplified by Carnegie’s steel empire․ This ensured efficiency and reduced costs by eliminating reliance on external suppliers․
Horizontal integration‚ conversely‚ focused on acquiring competitors in the same industry‚ creating monopolies like Rockefeller’s Standard Oil․ This strategy aimed to eliminate competition and control prices․ Both methods‚ though distinct‚ contributed to the rise of massive corporations and the concentration of economic power‚ fundamentally altering the American industrial landscape and raising concerns about fair competition․
Social Darwinism & Laissez-Faire Economics
The Gilded Age witnessed the popularization of Social Darwinism‚ applying “survival of the fittest” to human society․ Proponents like Herbert Spencer argued that wealth indicated virtue and justified vast inequalities‚ hindering efforts for social reform․ This ideology aligned with laissez-faire economics – a belief in minimal government intervention in the economy․
Laissez-faire policies fostered an environment of unregulated growth‚ allowing businesses to operate with little oversight․ Critics argued this led to exploitation of workers and unchecked monopolies․ However‚ supporters believed it promoted innovation and efficiency‚ ultimately benefiting society through wealth creation‚ despite the harsh realities for many․
Cultural & Intellectual Developments
This period saw the rise of mass culture‚ realism in literature‚ and philosophies like the Gospel of Wealth‚ reflecting societal changes and economic disparities․
The Gospel of Wealth
Andrew Carnegie’s “Gospel of Wealth” (1889) articulated a philosophy justifying vast wealth accumulation‚ arguing that the wealthy had a moral obligation to use their fortunes for the benefit of society․ Carnegie believed in philanthropic endeavors – funding libraries‚ education‚ and the arts – as the best means for distributing surplus wealth․
This concept reflected Social Darwinist ideas‚ suggesting that the successful were naturally fit to lead and manage resources․ However‚ it also presented a counterpoint to purely selfish accumulation‚ advocating responsible stewardship of capital․ The “Gospel of Wealth” significantly influenced philanthropic practices during the Gilded Age and beyond‚ shaping how the wealthy viewed their societal role․
Realism & Naturalism in Literature
The late 19th century witnessed a shift in American literature from Romanticism to Realism and Naturalism‚ mirroring the era’s social and economic changes․ Realism aimed to portray life as it truly was‚ focusing on everyday experiences and ordinary people‚ often depicting the harsh realities of industrialization and urbanization․
Naturalism‚ a more extreme form‚ applied scientific principles to human behavior‚ suggesting individuals were shaped by forces beyond their control – heredity and environment․ Authors like Stephen Crane and Jack London explored themes of survival‚ poverty‚ and the brutal aspects of life‚ offering critical commentary on Gilded Age society․
The Rise of Mass Culture
The Gilded Age saw the emergence of a national mass culture‚ fueled by increased leisure time‚ urbanization‚ and technological advancements․ New forms of entertainment‚ like vaudeville‚ amusement parks‚ and professional sports (baseball!)‚ became incredibly popular‚ attracting diverse audiences․
Mass-produced goods‚ readily available through mail-order catalogs and department stores‚ fostered a consumer culture․ Newspapers with sensationalized reporting (“yellow journalism”) and the growth of advertising further shaped public opinion and desires․ This shared cultural experience began to homogenize American life‚ despite regional differences․
